radiation damage. A general term for the alteration of properties of a material arising from exposure to ionizing radiation (penetrating radiation), such as x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, heavy-particle radiation, or fission fragments in nuclear fuel material.
rare earth metal. One of the group of 15 chemically similar metals with atomic numbers 57 through 71, commonly referred to as the lanthanides.
reactive metal. A metal that readily combines with oxygen at elevated temperatures to form very stable oxides, for example, titanium, zirconium, and beryllium. Reactive metals may also become embrittled by the interstitial absorption of oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
recrystallization. (1) Formation of a new, strain-free grain structure from that existing in cold-worked metal, usually accomplished by heating. (2) The change from one crystal structure to another, as occurs on heating or cooling through a critical temperature.
redox potential, The potential of a reversible oxidation-reduction electrode measured with respect to a reference electrode, corrected to the hydrogen electrode, in a given electrolyte.
reducing agent. A compound that causes reduction. thereby itself becoming oxidized.
reduction. A reaction in which there is a decrease in valence resulting from a gain in electrons. Contrast with oxidation.
reference electrode. A nonpolarizable electrode with a known and highly reproducible potential used for potentiometric and voltammetric analyses. See also calomel electrode.
refractory metal. A metal having an extremely high melting point, for example, tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum, niobium, chromium, vanadium, and rhenium. In the broad sense, this term refers to metals having melting points above the range for iron, cobalt, and nickel.
relative humidity. The ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the amount of water vapor present in a given volume of air at a given temperature to, the amount required to saturate the air at that temperature.
residual stress. Stresses that remain within a body as a result of plastic deformation.
resistance. The opposition that a device or material offers to the flow of direct current, equal to the voltage drop across the element divided by the current through the element. Also called electrical resistance.
resistivity. See electrical resistivity.
rest potential. See corrosion potential and open-circuit potential.
riser. (1) That section of pipeline extending from the ocean floor up the platform. Also, the vertical tube in a steam generator convection bank that circulates water and steam upward. (2) A reservoir of molten metal connected to a casting to provide additional metal to the casting, required as the result of shrinkage before and during solidification. rust. A visible corrosion product consisting of hydrated oxides of iron. Applied only to ferrous alloys. See also white rust.
sacrificial protection. Reduction of corrosion of a metal in an electrolyte by galvanically coupling It to a more anodic metal; a form of cathodic protection.
salt fog test. An accelerated corrosion test in which specimens are exposed to a fine mist of a solution usually containing sodium chloride. but sometimes modified with other chemicals.
salt spray test. See salt fog test.
saturated calomel electrode. A reference electrode composed of mercury. mercurous chloride (calomel), and a saturated aqueous chloride solution.
scaling. (1) The formation at high temperatures of thick corrosion product layers on a metal surface. (2) The deposition of water-insoluble constituents on a metal surface.
season cracking. An obsolete historical term usually applied to stress-corrosion cracking of brass.
selective leaching. Corrosion in which one element is preferentially removed from an alloy, leaving a residue (often porous) of the elements that are more resistant to the particular environment. Also called dealloying or parting. See also decarburization, decobaltification, denickelification, dezincification, and graphitic corrosion.
sensitizing heat treatment. A heat treatment, whether accidental, intentional, or incidental (as during welding), that causes precipitation of constituents at grain boundaries, often causing the alloy to become susceptible to intergranular corrosion or intergranular stress-corrosion cracking. See also sensitization.
sensitization. In austenitic stainless steels, the precipitation of chromium carbides, usually at grain boundaries, on exposure to temperatures of about 550 to 850oC (about 1000 to 1550oF), leaving the grain boundaries depleted of chromium and therefore susceptible to preferential attack by a corroding (oxidizing) medium.
shear. That type of force that causes or tends to cause two contiguous pans of the same body to slide relative to each other in a direction parallel to their plane of contact.
shear strength. The stress required to produce fracture in the plane of cross section, the conditions of loading being such that the directions of force and of resistance are parallel and opposite although their paths are offset a specified minimum amount. The maximum load divided by the original cross-sectional area of a section separated by shear.
sigma phase. A hard, brittle, nonmagnetic intermediate phase with a tetragonal crystal structure, containing 30 atoms per unit cell, space group P42 mnm, occurring in many binary and ternary alloys of the transition elements. The composition of this phase in the various systems is not the same and the phase usually exhibits a wide range in homogeneity. Alloying with a third transition element usually enlarges the field of homogeneity and extends it deep into the ternary section.
sigma-phase embrittlement. Embrittlement of iron-chromium alloys (most notably austenitic stainless steels) caused by precipitation at grain boundaries of the hard, brittle intermetallic sigma phase during long periods of exposure to temperatures between approximately 560 and 980oC (1050 and 1800oF). Sigma-phase embrittlement results in severe loss in toughness and ductility, and can make the embrittled material susceptible to intergranular corrosion. See also sensitization.
slip. Plastic deformation by the irreversible shear displacement (translation) of one part of a crystal relative to another in a definite crystallographic direction and usually on a specific crystallographic plane. Sometimes called glide.
slow strain rate technique. An experimental technique for evaluating susceptibility to stress-corrosion cracking. It involves pulling the specimen to failure in uniaxial tension at a controlled slow strain rate while the specimen is in the test environment and examining the specimen for evidence of stress-corrosion cracking.
slushing compound. An obsolete term describing oil or grease coatings used to provide temporary protection against atmospheric corrosion.
smelt. Molten slag; in the pulp and paper industry, the cooking chemicals tapped from the recovery boiler as molten material and dissolved in the smelt tank as green liquor.
S-N diagram. A plot showing the relationship of stress, S, and the number of cycles, N, before fracture in fatigue testing.
soft water. Water that is free of magnesium or calcium salts.
solder embrittlement. Reduction in mechanical properties of a metal as a result of local penetration of solder along grain boundaries.
solid-metal embrittlement. The occurrence of embrittlement in a material below the melting point of the embrittling species. See also liquid-metal embrittlement.
solid solution. A single, solid, homogeneous crystalline phase containing two or more chemical species.
solute. The component of either a liquid or solid solution that is present to a lesser or minor extent; the component that is dissolved in the solvent.
solution. In chemistry, a homogeneous dispersion of two or more kinds of molecular or ionic species. Solution may be composed of any combination of liquids, solids, or gases, but they always consist of a single phase.
solution heat treatment. Heating an alloy to a suitable temperature, holding at that temperature long enough to cause one or more constituents to enter into solid solution, and then cooling rapidly enough to hold these constituents in solution.
solution potential. Electrode potential where half-cell reaction involves only the metal electrode and its ion.
solvent. The component of either a liquid or solid solution that is present to a greater or major extent; the component that dissolves the solute.
sour gas. A gaseous environment containing hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide in hydrocarbon reservoirs. Prolonged exposure to sour gas can lead to hydrogen damage, sulfide-stress cracking, and/or stress-corrosion cracking in ferrous alloys.
sour water. Waste waters containing fetid materials, usually sulfur compounds.
spalling. The spontaneous chipping, fragmentation, or separation of a surface or surface coating.
spheroidite. An aggregate of iron or alloy carbides of essentially spherical shape dispersed throughout a matrix of ferrite.
sputtering. A coating process whereby thermally emitted electrons collide with inert gas atoms, which accelerate toward and impact a negatively charged electrode that is a target of the coating material. The impacting ions dislodge atoms of the target material, which are in turn projected to and deposited on the substrate to form the coating.
stabilizing treatment. (1) Before finishing to final dimensions, repeatedly heating a ferrous or nonferrous part to or slightly above its normal operating temperature and then cooling to room temperature to ensure dimensional stability in service. (2) Transforming retained austenite in quenched hardenable steels, usually by cold treatment. (3) Heating a solution-treated stabilized grade of austenitic stainless steel to 870 to 900oC (1600 to 1650oF) to precipitate all carbon as TiC, NbC, or TaC so that sensitization is avoided on subsequent exposure to elevated temperature.
standard electrode potential. The reversible potential for an electrode process when all products and reactions are at unit activity on a scale in which the potential for the standard hydrogen half-cell is zero.
strain. The unit of change in the size or shape of a body due to force. Also known as nominal strain.
strain-age embrittlement. A loss in ductility accompanied by an increase in hardness and strength that occurs when low-carbon steel (especially rimmed or capped steel) is aged following plastic deformation. The degree of embrittlement is a function of aging time and temperature, occurring in a matter of minutes at about 200oC (400oF), but requiring a few hours to a year at room temperature.
strain aging. Aging induced by cold working.
strain hardening. An increase in hardness and strength caused by plastic deformation at temperatures below the recrystallization range.
strain rate. The time rate of straining for the usual tensile test. Strain as measured directly on the specimen gage length is used for determining strain rate. Because strain is dimensionless, the units of strain rate are reciprocal time.
stray current. Current flowing through paths other than the intended circuit.
stray-current corrosion. Corrosion resulting from direct current flow through paths other than the intended circuit. For example, by an extraneous current in the earth.
stress. The intensity of the internally distributed forces or components of forces that resist a change in the volume or shape of a material that is or has been subjected to external forces. Stress is expressed in force per unit area and is calculated on the basis of the original dimensions of the cross section of the specimen. Stress can be either direct (tension or compression) or shear. See also residual stress.
stress concentration factor (Kt,). A multiplying factor for applied stress that allows for the presence of a structural discontinuity such as a notch or hole; Kt, equals the ratio of the greatest stress in the region of the discontinuity to the nominal stress for the entire section. Also called theoretical stress concentration factor.
stress-corrosion cracking (SCC). A cracking process that requires the simultaneous action of a corrodent and sustained tensile stress. This excludes corrosion-reduced sections that fail by fast fracture. It also excludes intercrystalline or transcrystalline corrosion, which can disintegrate an alloy without applied or residual stress. Stress-corrosion cracking may occur in combination with hydrogen embrittlement.
stress-intensity factor. A scaling factor, usually denoted by the symbol K, used in linear-elastic fracture mechanics to describe the intensification of applied stress at the tip of a crack of known size and shape. At the onset of rapid crack propagation in any structure containing a crack, the factor is called the critical stress-intensity factor, or the fracture toughness. Various subscripts are used to denote different loading conditions or fracture toughnesses:
Kc. Plane-stress fracture toughness. The value of stress intensity at which crack propagation becomes rapid in sections thinner than those in which plane-strain conditions prevail.
KI,. Stress-intensity factor for a loading condition that displaces the crack faces in a direction normal to the crack plane (also known as the opening mode of deformation).
KIC. Plane-strain fracture toughness. The minimum value of Kc for any given material and condition, which is attained when rapid crack propagation in the opening mode is governed by plane-strain conditions.
KId. Dynamic fracture toughness. The fracture toughness determined under dynamic loading conditions; it is used as an approximation of KIC for very tough materials.
KISCC. Threshold stress-intensity factor for stress-corrosion cracking. The critical plane-strain stress intensity at the onset of stress-corrosion cracking under specified conditions.
KQ. Provisional value for plane-strain fracture toughness.
Kth,. Threshold stress intensity for stress-corrosion cracking. The critical stress intensity at the onset of stress-corrosion cracking under specified conditions.
Delta K. The range of the stress-intensity factor during a fatigue cycle. stress-intensity factor range, Delta K. In fatigue, the variation in the stress-intensity factor in a cycle, that is, Kmax-Kmin
stress raisers. Changes in contour or discontinuities in structure that cause local increases in stress.
stress ratio, A or R. The algebraic ratio of two specified stress values in a stress cycle. Two commonly used stress ratios are: (1) the ratio of the alternating stress amplitude to the mean stress, A = Sa/Sm; and (2) the ratio of the minimum stress to the maximum stress, R =Smin / Smax
stress-relief cracking. Also called post-weld heat treatment cracking, stress-relief cracking occurs when susceptible alloys are subjected to thermal stress relief after welding to reduce residual stresses and improve toughness. Stress-relief cracking occurs only in metals that can precipitation-harden during such elevated-temperature exposure; it usually occurs at stress raisers, is intergranular in nature, and is generally observed in the coarse-grained region of the weld heat affected zone. See also cold cracking, hot cracking, and lamellar tearing.
striation. A fatigue fracture feature, often observed in electron micrographs, that indicates the position of the crack front after each succeeding cycle of stress. The distance between striations indicates the advance of the crack front across that crystal during one stress cycle, and a line normal to the striations indicates the direction of local crack propagation. See also beach marks.
subsurface corrosion. Formation of isolated particles of corrosion products beneath a metal surface. This results from the preferential reactions of certain alloy constituents to inward diffusion of oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur.
sulfidation. The reaction of a metal or alloy with a sulfur-containing species to produce a sulfur compound that forms on or beneath the surface on the metal or alloy.
sulfide stress cracking (SSC). Brittle failure by cracking under the combined action of tensile stress and corrosion in the presence of water and hydrogen sulfide. See also environmental cracking.
surfactant. A surface-active agent; usually an organic compound whose molecules contain a hydrophilic group at one end and a lipophilic group at the other.
Tafel line, Tafel slope, Tafel diagram. When an electrode is polarized, it frequently will yield a current/potential relationship over a region that can be approximated by: deltaE=beta log (i/io), where deltaE is the change in open-circuit potential, i is the current density, beta and io are constants. The constant beta is also known as the Tafel slope. If this behavior is observed, a plot on semi-logarithmic coordinates is known as the Tafel line and the overall diagram is termed a Tafel diagram.
tarnish. Surface discoloration of a metal caused by formation of a thin film of corrosion product.
temper. (1) In heat treatment, to reheat hardened steel or hardened cast iron to some temperature below the eutectoid temperature for the purpose of decreasing hardness and increasing toughness. The process is also sometimes applied to normalized steel. (2) In tool steels, temper is sometimes inadvisably used to denote carbon content. (3) In nonferrous alloys and in some ferrous alloys (steels that cannot be hardened by heat treatment), the hardness and strength produced by mechanical or thermal treatment, or both, and characterized by a certain structure, mechanical properties, or reduction of area during cold working.
temper color. A thin, tightly adhering oxide skin (only a few molecules thick) that forms when steel is tempered at a low temperature, or for a short time, in air or a mildly oxidizing atmosphere. The color, which ranges from straw to blue depending on the thickness of the oxide skin, varies with both tempering time and temperature.
tempered martensite embrittlement. Embrittlement of ultrahigh-strength steels caused by tempering in the temperature range of 205 to 400oC (400 to 750oF); also called 350oC or 500oF embrittlement. Tempered martensite embrittlement is thought to result from the combined effects of cementite precipitation on prior-austenite grain boundaries or interlath boundaries and the segregation of impurities at prior-austenite grain boundaries.
temper embrittlement. Embrittlement of alloy steels caused by holding within or cooling slowly through a temperature range just below the transformation range. Embrittlement is the result of the segregation at grain boundaries of impurities such as arsenic. antimony, phosphorus, and tin; it is usually manifested as an upward shift in ductile-to-brittle transition temperature. Temper embrittlement can be reversed by retempering above the critical temperature range, then cooling rapidly.
tensile strength. In tensile testing, the ratio of maximum load to original cross-sectional area. Also called ultimate tensile strength.
tensile stress. A stress that causes two parts of an elastic body, on either side of a typical stress plane, to pull apart. Contrast with compressive stress.
tension. The force or load that produces elongation.
terne. An alloy of lead containing 3 to 15% Sn, used as a hot dip coating for steel sheet or plate. Terne coatings, which are smooth and dull in appearance, give the steel better corrosion resistance and enhance its ability to be formed, soldered, or painted.
thermal electromotive force. The electromotive force generated in a circuit containing two dissimilar metals when one junction is at a temperature different from that of the other. See also thermocouple.
thermal embrittlement. Intergranular fracture of maraging steels with decreased toughness resulting from improper processing after hot working. Thermal embrittlement occurs upon heating above 1095oC (2000oF) and then slow cooling through the temperature range of 815 to 980oC (1500 to 1800oF), and has been attributed to precipitation of titanium carbides and titanium carbonitrides at austenite grain boundaries during cooling through the critical temperature range.
thermally induced embrittlement. See embrittlement.
thermal spraying. A group of coating or welding processes in which finely divided metallic or nonmetallic materials are deposited in a molten or semi-molten condition to form a coating. The coating material may be in the form of powder, ceramic rod, wire, or molten materials. See also flame spraying and plasma spraying.
thermocouple. A device for measuring temperatures, consisting of lengths of two dissimilar metals or alloys that are electrically joined at one end and connected to a voltage-measuring instrument at the other end. When one junction is hotter than the other, a thermal electromotive force is produced that is roughly proportional to the difference in temperature between the hot and cold junctions.
thermogalvanic corrosion. Corrosion resulting from an electrochemical cell caused by a thermal gradient.
threshold stress. Threshold stress for stress-corrosion cracking. The critical gross section stress at the onset of stress-corrosion cracking under specified conditions.
throwing power. (1) The relationship between the current density at a point on a surface and its distance from the counter electrode. The greater the ratio of the surface resistivity shown by the electrode reaction to the volume resistivity of the electrolyte, the better is the throwing power of the process. (2) The ability of a plating solution to produce a uniform metal distribution on an irregularly shaped cathode. Compare with covering power.
tinning. Coating metal with a very thin layer of molten solder or brazing filler metal.
torsion. A twisting deformation of a solid body about an axis in which lines that were initially parallel to the axis become helices.
torsional stress. The shear stress on a transverse cross section resulting from a twisting action.
total carbon. The sum of the free carbon and combined carbon (including carbon in solution) in a ferrous alloy.
toughness. The ability of a metal to absorb energy and deform plastically before fracturing.
transcrystalline. See transgranular.
transcrystalline cracking. See transgranular cracking.
transference. The movement of ions through the electrolyte associated with the passage of the electric current. Also called transport or migration.
transgranular. Through or across crystals or grains. Also called intracrystalline or transcrystalline .
transgranular cracking. Cracking or fracturing that occurs through or across a crystal or grain. Also called transcrystalline cracking. Contrast with intergranular cracking.
transgranular fracture. Fracture through or across the crystals or grains of a metal. Also called transcrystalline fracture or intracrystalline fracture. Contrast with intergranular fracture.
transition metal. A metal in which the available electron energy levels are occupied in such a way that the d-band contains less than its maximum number of ten electrons per atom, for example, iron, cobalt, nickel, and tungsten. The distinctive properties of the transition metals result from the incompletely filled d-levels.
transition temperature. (1) An arbitrarily defined temperature that lies within the temperature range in which metal fracture characteristics (as usually determined by tests of notched specimens) change rapidly, such as from primarily fibrous (shear) to primarily crystalline (cleavage) fracture. (2) Sometimes used to denote an arbitrarily defined temperature within a range in which the ductility changes rapidly with temperature.
transpassive region. The region of an anodic polarization curve, noble to and above the passive potential range, in which there is a significant increase in current density (increased metal dissolution) as the potential becomes more positive (noble).
transpassive state. (1) State of anodically passivated metal characterized by a considerable increase of the corrosion current, in the absence of pitting, when the potential is increased. (2) The noble region of potential where an electrode exhibits a higher than passive current density.
triaxial stress. See principal stress (normal).
tuberculation. The formation of localized corrosion products scattered over the surface in the form of knoblike mounds called tubercles.
ultimate strength. The maximum stress (tensile, compressive, or shear) a material can sustain without fracture, determined by dividing maximum load by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen. Also called nominal strength or maximum strength.
underfilm corrosion. Corrosion that occurs under organic films in the form of randomly distributed threadlike filaments or spots. In many cases this is identical to filiform corrosion.
uniaxial stress. See principal stress (normal).
uniform corrosion. (1) A type of corrosion attack (deterioration) uniformly distributed over a metal surface. (2) Corrosion that proceeds at approximately the same rate over a metal surface. Also called general corrosion.
vacuum deposition. Condensation of thin metal coatings on the cool surface of work in a vacuum. valence. A positive number that characterizes the combining power of an element for other elements, as measured by the number of bonds to other atoms that one atom of the given element forms upon chemical combination; hydrogen is assigned valence 1, and the valence is the number of hydrogen atoms, or their equivalent, with which an atom of the given element combines.
vapor deposition. See chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, and sputtering.
vapor plating. Deposition of a metal or compound on a heated surface by reduction or decomposition of a volatile compound at a temperature below the melting points of the deposit and the base material. The reduction is usually accomplished by a gaseous reducing agent such as hydrogen. The decomposition process may involve thermal dissociation or reaction with the base material Occasionally used to designate deposition on cold surfaces by vacuum evaporation See also vacuum deposition.
voids. A term generally applied to paints to describe holidays, holes, and skips in a film. Also used to describe shrinkage in castings and welds.
wash primer. A thin, inhibiting paint, usually chromate pigmented with a polyvinyl butyrate binder.
weld cracking. Cracking that occurs in the weld metal. See also cold cracking, hot cracking, lamellar tearing, and stress-relief cracking.
weld decay. Intergranular corrosion, usually of stainless steels or certain nickel-base alloys, that occurs as the result of sensitization in the heat-affected zone during the welding operation.
wetting. A condition in which the interfacial tension between a liquid and a solid is such that the contact angle is 0o to 90o.
wetting agent. A substance that reduces the surface tension of a liquid, thereby causing it to spread more readily on a solid surface.
white liquor. Cooking liquor from the kraft pulping process produced by recausticizing green liquor with lime.
white rust. Zinc oxide; the powdery product of corrosion of zinc or zinc-coated surfaces
work hardening. Same as strain hardening.
working electrode. The test or specimen electrode in an electrochemical cell.
yield. Evidence of plastic deformation in structural materials Also called plastic flow or creep. See also flow.
yield point. The first stress in a material. usually less than the maximum attainable stress. at which an increase in strain occurs without an increase in stress. Only certain metals-those that exhibit a localized, heterogeneous type of transition from elastic deformation to plastic deformation-produce a yield point. If there is a decrease in stress after yielding, a distinction may be made between upper and lower yield points. The load at which a sudden drop in the flow curve occurs is called the upper yield point. The constant load shown on the flow curve is the lower yield point.
yield strength. The stress at which a material exhibits a specified deviation from proportionality of stress and strain. An offset of 0.2% is used for many metals.
yield stress. The stress level in a material at or above the yield strength but below the ultimate strength, i.e., a stress in the plastic range.
zeta potential. See electrokinetic potential.
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"Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Electroplating," B 374, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 02.05, American Society for Testing and Materials
"Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Fatigue Testing and the Statistical Analysis of Fatigue Data," E 206, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 03.01, American Society for Testing and Materials
"Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Methods of Mechanical Testing," E 6, Annual/ Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 03.01, American Society for Testing and Materials
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